The First Baath Government

The Baath Party seized power in Syria following the Baathist coup in Iraq the previous month. The new Syrian government explored the possibility of forming a federal state with Egypt and Baathist-controlled Iraq. An agreement was signed in Cairo on April 17, 1963, to hold a public referendum on the union in September 1963. However, serious disagreements soon emerged between the parties, and the proposed tripartite union failed to materialize. The Baath governments in Syria and Iraq then worked toward forming a bilateral union, but these plans collapsed in November 1963 when the Baathist government in Iraq was overthrown.

In May 1964, President Amin al-Hafiz issued a temporary constitution through the National Council for the Leadership of the Revolution. This established a National Council of the Revolution, a legislative body composed of representatives from mass organizations—labor, peasant, and professional unions—as well as an executive Presidential Council and a Council of Ministers.

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The Second Baath Government

On February 23, 1966, a group of military officers staged a successful coup, known as the "internal coup" or the "first corrective movement" of the Baath Party. This was carried out by radical Baathist officers, the most prominent of whom were:

• Salah Jadid: The primary figure behind the coup, a key leader in the Baath Party, and a member of its Regional Command. Although he did not formally assume the presidency or premiership, he effectively controlled Syria from behind the scenes.

• Hafez al-Assad: Commander of the Air Force at the time, he played a crucial role in supporting the coup. Afterward, he became Minister of Defence, a position that allowed him to consolidate his military and political power, eventually paving the way for his own coup in 1970.

• Abd al-Karim al-Jundi: A high-ranking officer who was a staunch supporter of Salah Jadid. He took charge of the internal security apparatus and played a key role in cementing the radical wing’s control over the Baath Party.

• Mohammad Omran: Another prominent Baathist leader involved in the coup. However, he soon clashed with both Salah Jadid and Hafez al-Assad, leading to his exile and later assassination in Lebanon in 1972.

This coup marked the dominance of the radical wing of the Baath Party, led by Salah Jadid, and resulted in the side lining of the more moderate faction represented by Michel Aflaq and Amin al-Hafiz.

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Baathist Rule Under Hafez al-Assad (1970–2000)

In September 1970, during the events of Black September in Jordan, Syria attempted to intervene in support of Palestinian fighters. Hafez al-Assad, as Minister of Defense, sent armored units into Jordan, including the Fifth Infantry Division and commando forces. However, on September 22, the Jordanian Royal Air Force launched airstrikes against the Syrian forces, inflicting heavy losses. As a result, the Syrian army was forced to retreat, which dealt a significant blow to the Palestinian fighters. This withdrawal reflected growing political divisions within Syria’s ruling Baath leadership.

By 1970, tensions between the radical military faction and the more moderate civilian faction of the Baath Party had escalated. These tensions culminated in November 1970, when Hafez al-Assad launched a military coup known as the Corrective Movement. He arrested Salah Jadid and his supporters, consolidating power and ruling Syria unchallenged until his death in 2000.

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The October War (1973)

On October 6, 1973, Syria and Egypt launched a surprise attack on Israel, marking the beginning of the Yom Kippur War (also called the Ramadan War or the October War). Despite initial successes, both Syria and Egypt lost their early gains over the course of the three-week conflict. Israel retained control of the Golan Heights and Sinai Peninsula.

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Hafez al-Assad’s Authoritarian Rule

Hafez al-Assad established a rigid authoritarian regime characterized by political repression and favoritism toward his Alawite sect. His brother, Rifaat al-Assad, created the Defense Companies, an elite military unit equipped with advanced weaponry to secure the regime and protect Alawite dominance.

One of the most notorious events of his rule was the Hama Massacre in 1982. Following an armed uprising by the Muslim Brotherhood, Rifaat al-Assad led the Defense Companies in a brutal military assault on the city, using tanks and heavy artillery. The massacre resulted in the deaths of thousands, making it one of the deadliest incidents in modern Syrian history.